Textiles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Materials - Essay Example The texture is heavier and thicker contrasted with most different textures. The thickness and weight is relying upon certain issues, for example, the novel yarn utilized. The thick structure and overwhelming load of the texture are brought about by the way that the novel yarn utilized for the texture has an alternate structure and structure which by and large incorporates multithreads utilized for the yarn (Sekhri, 2012). The surface of the texture is unpleasant, not normal for most different textures which are smoother. It is anyway not extremely unpleasant, while the degree or harshness may rely upon the individual texture and situated in the curiosity yarn utilized. As expressed, the yarn utilized for the texture is the curiosity yarn which comes in various structures and types. There are various oddity yarns with various structures and plans. These incorporate the employ yarn, the Core, Eyelash, Bouclã © Ribbon, Chenille, Crepe yarns. Each kind of yarn depends on an alternate The structure of the oddity texture is mind boggling and as per the India Textile Journal (2014), this originates from the way that the yarn utilized many have various strings made into one. The increase yarn for example has three at that point sewn into one and this makes the texture to have a varied structure. The utilize yarn, named so bite the dust to its three employs of strings, ahs these strings, each string having this reason, for example, offering quality, structure and combining (Strong, 1953). This gives the texture a curiosity type of structure. The excellence of the texture radiates from the structure which is a raised structure with an unpleasant vibe. Pressing this piece of clothing would press the texture and this would lessen its excellence and the harsh feel surface. Hand wishing the texture would be best as this would secure the great nature of the texture. The texture can likewise be machine-washed yet with delicate tumbling. On the off chance that the texture must be machine-washed, at that point delicate cycle would be smarter to abstain from crushing the texture structure. The texture is somewhat sensitive because of its exceptional textural highlights. Tumble drying would

Impact Of Globalization On Fashion And Pharmaceutical Industries Economics Essay

Effect Of Globalization On Fashion And Pharmaceutical Industries Economics Essay Globalization is a wide idea and it has been characterized from multiple points of view by various creators. As per Freedman(1999 ,p 156) and Woods(2000,p78), globalization implies different quantitative and subjective advancements extending from an emotional increment in universal exchanges, particularly in fund, to the universal and spatial revamping of creation, the worldwide harmonization of tastes and norms, progression, deregulation, privatization, the appearance of new data innovations, the worldwide dispersion of data, qualities, and thoughts, gigantic populace moves, patterns towards a general world culture, the spread of an overall inclination for majority rules system, and the disintegration of the country state. Globalization has various measurements like financial, social, political and natural. It impactsly affects various businesses with changing powers dependent on these various measurements. In this exposition, the effect of globalization on style and pharmaceutical ventures are analyzed and looked at. This is to inspect the varying forces with which globalization influences these two ventures. In the following two areas, the various effects of globalization on style and pharmaceutical ventures are talked about independently. In the last area, the effect of globalization on both these ventures is looked at and ends are made. 2. Effect of Globalization on Fashion Industry The most significant components of style industry are material, dress or clothing and footwear ventures. It additionally incorporates food, lodging, music, cars, perfumery and magnificence items. As indicated by Davis (1992), one primary distinctive element of style industry is its capacity to separate between various social classes or in any case called social separation. For instance, the most in vogue things are in every case extravagant and can be bought by the high society while the white collar class goes for less expensive things. This made it important to deliver the chic things in less expensive cost in the style business to accomplish the selling objective (Graham et al, 2006). Globalization influences design industry through the creation, dissemination and showcasing channels. One primary effect of globalization is to keep the individuals educated and refreshed on every single new pattern in the style business through old and new media like radio, TV, papers, web, cell phones and so on. Thus, presently there is a propensity for copying Western style everywhere throughout the world supplanting the customary garments in every country. For instance to feature secularism, a boycott has been forced on ladies wearing headscarfs in France by thinking about wearing headscarf as a customary strict image. The legislature considered wearing headscarf antagonistically influencing the outsiders to absorb into the Western culture, which is called social digestion (Huntington, 1997). This social absorption is a significant effect of globalization in style industry. The refreshing of new patterns in the style business depended on the economies of scale approach. This is expected to acquire new patterns in style to all business sectors at proper occasions and at the right costs for lessening the all out creation costs. The requirement for decreasing creation costs has brought about the inclination among the created countries to redistribute creation to creating countries like China where the creation will be less expensive. This has antagonistically influenced the neighborhood business in created countries and abuses the economies of scale standard. The nearby ventures got influenced seriously as a result of this re-appropriating of creation and a large number of them couldn't keep working subsequently. Eg: delivering a brand, shirt in Western China where no lowest pay permitted by law guidelines are there as opposed to creating it in Australia for decreasing the creation cost. For this situation, accomplishing high net revenue in Australia is ex tremely troublesome contrasted with that in China (Purdy, 2000). Globalization has changed this wonder anyway by lessening the transportation and correspondence costs and along these lines expanding the openness of individuals to new molds everywhere throughout the world. This has likewise sped up creation in design contrasted with the former times. The advanced specialized instruments like web discussions have empowered the turn of events and spreading of new mechanical developments, which has expanded the adequacy of creation in all countries. Globalization has accordingly brought about more trade of thoughts and data with respect to the accessibility of material textures and creation, which has likewise brought about an ascent in the interest for items. The result of every one of these was the brand names cornering the style business and the spread of individualistic demeanor rather than post materialistic particularly among the white collar classes. Base on these worldwide conditions, the patterns in style industry were to entice the people for personal growth as opposed to tolerating them as they seem to be. The most noticeable case of this can be seen from the developing pattern of turning out to be meager models as the standards of female excellence. This has end up being anatomically increasingly right and has a few mental and physiological effects. In any case, the negative side is this has made by the weight among female models for turning out to be slender models (Collins, 1997). The benefits of globalization in design industry can be considered as the move in the patterns among the white collar class from purchasing redistributed items affected by present materialistic philosophies on purchase all the more privately created ones. In any case, the issue is that the number of inhabitants in working class supposedly is diminishing contrasted with different gatherings. Notwithstanding these, another effect of globalization was the move in the creation from creating to created countries to go with the guideline of economies of scale generally affected by new and old media everywhere throughout the world. Be that as it may, this can't be considered as a positive pattern particularly under the situation of the present monetary emergency (Graham et al, 2006). As per Abarnathy et al (2003), the globalization of material and dress industry is definitely not another one and its history can be followed back to even the twelfth century. As indicated by this examination, in the previous days the globalization was worried about development of work and capital across countries dependent on relative factor expenses and productivities for work, capital and different contributions among countries and their effect on item costs, changes in worldwide trade rates, standards and levies. In the current situation, the development of work and capital depends on some different parts of dispersion notwithstanding these like lean retailing, item multiplication, coastal and seaward re-appropriating. The Multi Fiber Arrangement that has been existing in the material business for a long time finished in 2005 with the choice of all WTO individuals to take out all quantities on materials. China in the wake of getting to WTO in 2002 turned into an amount free count ry in the WTO around the same time. The general picture in the style business subsequently shows that globalization has brought about falling transportation and correspondence costs .This has essentially influenced the development of the business sectors in the business .The idea of lean retailing has created joining diminished transportation and correspondence costs just as new specialized advancements. The principle issue anyway with the lean retailing is that it has improved the valuing pressures (Abarnathy et al, 2003). As a piece of globalization process, the portions on materials additionally were expelled with impact from 2005. 3. Effect of Globalization on Pharmaceutical Industry On account of pharmaceutical industry, globalization has its impact through the blend of innovative and monetary measurements (SickBlog, 2009). The focal point of this industry is to look into, create and disseminate drugs. Globalization process influences the business through three significant portions to be specific creation, innovative work and advertising. In the current period of globalization, it is accounted for in numerous examinations that huge organizations in the business, which were once in their better occasions, are presently in troublesome stages basically because of wasteful Research and Development (RD)(Dufala,2007;Pouw,2008 and so forth). The built up organizations are accounted for to have flopped in delivering new things into the market mostly because of the rising RD costs. For instance, Pfizer, which was the fourth biggest worldwide pharmaceutical organization on the planet, is currently confronting awful time with a 10-year showcase restrictiveness conceded to new medications. Globalization has brought about upgraded accessibility of data, which has changed the job of specialists (Dufala, 2007). For instance, on account of patients who have data from web, the choices made by specialists are seen as sketchy. In this way, the upgraded accessibility of data has influenced the worth chain in pharmaceuticals. It has additionally made the administrative organizations to be increasingly mindful. In this manner, globalization process has influenced the showcasing by moving towards patients. As a result of globalization, the nonexclusive markets are accounted for to be developing by exploiting the market eliteness of unique medications and creating in minimal effort places for eg: Ranbaxi and Teva. Notwithstanding these two turns of events, may little biotechnology organizations face issues because of the trouble in financing the activities in these organizations (Dufala, 2007). All the advancements as a piece of globalization process have brought about upgrading rivalry in the business while it has not expanded weights for rebuilding not at all like different ventures. Agreement Research Organizations (CROs) have noticeable job due to globalization process (Shuchman, 2007). The globalization has brought about expanded mergers and acquisitions of the CROs. Instances of CRO s are Pharmac

Essay Help - How to Choose the Right Online Resource

Essay Help - How to Choose the Right Online ResourceThere are many websites that provide easy to use and convenient essay help. Often times these sites are also good places to find free resource books that can help you with your college essay. With so many resources available, it is sometimes difficult to choose the right one for you.If you have not used an online guide before, it is a good idea to review a few of them and decide which one might work best for you. The first thing you should do is check to see if the site offers assistance in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. You will likely be using this service for the rest of your life, so you want to make sure that you will have no problems.If the site does not offer this type of help, it is possible that you might get assistance in these areas later on. The next thing you will want to look at is the quantity of essay help that the site provides. The fewer the resources the better, especially if they do not offer advanced help.I f you have multiple essays to write, then you might want to consider searching for the right service to take care of all of them. Again, if the site offers such help, it is best to examine what the services do. This will give you a better idea of what type of help you will be receiving.While the site's reputation is a big consideration, the age of the site itself is something that should also be taken into account. A site that has been around for a long time is probably a reliable resource. It is not unusual for older sites to still provide the help that you need, even though some of the tools and features that you will need may have changed over the years.It is also a good idea to see if the site has a lot of reviews or feedback on the site's resource book. Even if the review is negative, you might want to check it out anyway because it can give you a good idea of the type of essay help you will receive. This is particularly true if there are negative comments from those who have u sed the service.The last thing you should look at is how easy it is to access help with your specific college essay. For example, if you need help with the formatting of your essay, it is important that the site is easy to use. Many sites will provide help in this area but the process may not be as straightforward as it might otherwise be.These are just a few quick tip to keep in mind when looking for essay help. Try to determine which one would be most suitable for your needs.

`` Fra Angelico s San Marco Altarpiece And The Metaphors...

In Barnaby Nygren’s article, Fra Angelico s San Marco Altarpiece and the Metaphors of Perspective, the rediscovery of linear perspectives and how it altered the planar space for those artist who worked in two-dimensions was methodically analyzed. Reviewing historical data and art works, Nygren revealed that artwork created prior to the 15th century was typically a religious endeavor designed to prompt devout worship through visual recollection of spiritual events. In essence, it was religious short-hand designed to trigger public recognition from mostly illiterate, but devote, religious viewers. Religious paintings were more symbolic. As such, these renditions were generally flat and unrealistic. This is due, largely in part, to the era in which the paintings were produced. Because the traditional style that had been used since the Egyptian and Byzantine periods lacked realism, not much thought was given to the use of linear perspective to create more realistic works. In fact, it wasn’t until the 15th century that realism even became valued. By the 15th century, people began to prize truth, realism, and intellect. Linear perspective gave depth through the use of spatial illusion. It created a realism in paintings that was appreciated by the growing intellect of the people. With the use of linear perspective, two-dimensional artist could merge a fictitious world, the art piece, into the reality of the physical world. Art in itself became an illusion of reality with the use

The Geography Geniuses Generated 3 Behaviorist Theory

Everybody learns in different ways, including the students sitting in the classrooms. How are teachers going to be able to make sure every student learns? Maribel, Julianne, Michelle, Matthew, and Ana are Geography Geniuses and are here to advise how to ensure that every student learns. Focusing on the 3rd grade standard SS.3.G.1.1, students will use thematic maps, tables, charts, graphs, and photos to analyze geographic information. The information being taught is declarative because students will acquire factual knowledge and information that can be spoken about at any time. The activities utilize hands-on and drill methods with the objective that if students are shown a blank map they will be able to recognize and recall all elements of the map automatically. Lastly, they fit into the remember and understand levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy because students will remember locations on the map and later understand different information and landmarks embedded in states. With all thi s in mind, the Geography Geniuses generated 3 behaviorist and 3 constructivist activities that allow the students to learn and practice geographic locations. The first activity my third grade students will learn is a constructivist activity, which promotes active learning and learning by doing. It derives from constructivism one of Piaget s theory it is defined as the view that meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge instead of a simple transfer of objective knowledge from one person toShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pages658.3—dc23 2011038674 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-13-283487-1 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-283487-2 Brief Contents Preface xxii 1 2 Introduction 1 What Is Organizational Behavior? 3 The Individual 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Diversity in Organizations 39 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction 69 Emotions and Moods 97 Personality and Values 131 Perception and Individual Decision Making 165 Motivation Concepts 201 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications 239 3 The Group 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Foundations

Monster The Autobiography Of An L.a - 1395 Words

In this paper, I will explain the actions illustrated in the book Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member, by Sanyika Shakur, also known as Monster Kody Scott, from a differential association perspective and how this ultimately leads to the use of techniques of neutralization. I will begin by giving a brief description of the text as well as providing examples to support my differential association and techniques of neutralization approach. Kody Scott, at the young age of eleven years old joins the Eight Tray Gangster Crip gang. He is initiated in by being â€Å"jumped in†, or assaulted by his fellow gang members. It is then suggested that Kody Scott commit a heinous act of violence and empty an entire clip of bullets and to not†¦show more content†¦While incarcerated, he encounters a Muslim church leader, who encourages his involvement in the participation of his church sermons and also suggests several books for the young boy to read. Just as Kody Scott st arts to have conflicting thoughts over his gang involvement he is quickly released back into the real world and into his tough gang lifestyle. Eventually, Kody ends up in prison once more where he is exposed to the C.C.O., or Consolidated Crip Organization, which is a group against Crip violence. His participation with this group is what leads Monster Kody Scott into becoming Sanyika Shakur and changing his life forever. Kody Scotts participation in gang activity can be explained through the interactions he had with his intimate peer groups as described by Edwin Sutherland in his theory of differential association. The theory of differential association strives to explain, â€Å"Why do certain individuals become criminals?† According to Sutherland (1947), criminality is learned in interaction with others in a process of communication, usually with small groups of people (p. 14). Criminality, from a differential association perspective, is learned from observations of defini tions favorable to law violation (Sutherland, 1947). The learning aspect also includes, both the techniques of committing crime, and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations and attitudes for committing crime (Sutherland, 1947, p. 15). The learning ofShow MoreRelatedCriminalogical Theories Applied to Monster The Autobiography of an LA Gang Member878 Words   |  4 PagesCriminalogical Theories Applied to Monster The Autobiography of an LA Gang Member In Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member, Kody Scott tells the story of the struggle between two significantly large gangs. At the age of eleven he was initiated into the Crips, and committed his first murder. It was this day that began what would become a career for Kody: banging (Scott, 1993). Kody worked hard to secure a reputation for his name. He held loyal to his homeboys and began to buildRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Monster 1063 Words   |  5 Pagesbut thought does not turn into action while others never formulate such a thought. This raises the question, why does Monster Kody Scott, consider devout gang membership as a sole objective despite constant contingencies of incarceration and demise? To answer this question, this paper will take the social disorganization position in its review of Monster: An Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member. In addition, this paper will use examples to show that social disorganization explains the behavior portrayedRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency And Its Effects On Society Essay1302 Words   |  6 Pagesthemselves as a gang, and they are recognized by others as a gang, the group has some permanence and a degree of organization and the group is involved in an elevated level of criminal activity†. In the book, The Autobiography of An L.A. Gang Member, by Sanyika Shakur, also known as Monster Kody Scott, the author shares his experience as a gang member from the moment he joined until the moment he left. He shares the struggle of the two largest gangs in America. According the book, Shakur quotes, â€Å"OnRead More L.A. Gang Member by Sanyika Shakur Essay example1478 Words   |  6 PagesL.A. Gang Member by Sanyika Shakur Kody Scott grew up in South Central L.A. during the nineteen-sixties and seventies, soon after the creation of the Crips. Raised in poverty without a father, and a full family raised solely by his mother, Kody Scott led the stereotypical â€Å"ghetto† life, a poor and broken home. However he does not blame this on his own personal decision to join the Crips while only eleven year’s old. The allure of the respect and â€Å"glory† that â€Å"bangers† got, along with theRead MoreMonster Book Report Essay1538 Words   |  7 PagesA History Lesson Alex Moir/February 13, 2001 Mrs. Neitling/Per.4 Kody Scott grew up in South Central L.A. during the nineteen-sixties and seventies, soon after the creation of the Crips. Raised in poverty without a father, and a full family raised solely by his mother, Kody Scott led the stereotypical ghetto life, a poor and broken home. However he does not blame this on his own personal decision to join the Crips while only eleven years old. The allure of the respect and glory thatRead More The Effect of Gangs in There Are No Children Here Essay949 Words   |  4 Pagesand Delinquency, Vol. 30 No. 1, Febuary 1993, pp. 88-112 (Journal) Lo, Chun-Nui (Celia), A Social Model Of Gang-Related Violence, Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology, Vol 19 No 1, May1991, pp. 36-43 (Journal) Shakur, Sanyika, Monster: The Autobiography Of An L.A. Gang Member,Penguin Book Ltd., 1993Read MoreThe Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member by Sanyika Shakur aka Kody Scott 1452 Words   |  6 PagesThis book Monster: the Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member by Sanyika Shakur aka Kody Scott depicts all of the events that Kody went through from the day he joined a gang up until when he decides to leave the gang, and his life after the gang. He joined the Eight Tray Crips when he was only eleven years old. He gets initiated into the gang after his sixth grade graduation, and he describes his initiation as an even bigger right of passage into society than his own graduation. The reasons that KodyRead MoreEssay about Children and Gangs1455 Words   |  6 PagesDelinquency, Vol. 30 No. 1, Febuary 1993, pp. 88-112 (Journal) Lo, Chun-Nui (Celia), A Social Model Of Gang-Related Violence, Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology, Vol 19 No 1, May1991, pp. 36-43 (Journal) Shakur, Sanyika, Monster: The Autobiography Of An L.A. Gang Member,Penguin Book Ltd., 1993   Read MoreEssay about Social Learning Theories and Juveniles4006 Words   |  17 Pagesinto to society i.e. recidivating is not as likely. Many of the offenders in this prison reportedly gave into peer pressure of delinquent behavior causing their present stay in the Singapore prison. In a novel by Sanyika Shakur titled Monster: the Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member he is a product of his environment, he learned his criminal traits through older gang member he associated with and fed off of his intimate personal group of the Eight Tray Gangsters. Several times during the chronicleRead MorePrice of the Ticket7729 Words   |  31 PagesAirplane and the Fugs, to perform at the benefit. Arriving on a motor scooter with Robert Scheer, the managing editor of the magazine Ramparts, Graham saw a long line stretching down Howard Street - Huge hordes of people, as he recalled in his autobiography, Bill Graham Presents, written with Robert Greenfield. Turning to Scheer, he said, This is the business of the future. There had, of course, been rock-and-roll concerts before the Mime Troupe appeal; the Beatles had filled Shea Stadium a few

Tragedy of Language in French Theatre free essay sample

Tragedy as a genre invokes images of Ancient Greek dramas depicting moral dilemmas and the downfall of great men, or of Shakespearian romances doomed to end in failure and death. When considering tragedy’s place in French theatre, we can see a dominance of tragic works in the classical period of the 17th century, and works by Corneille and Racine dominated the theatre. However, with the progression of the years, we can identify a dramatic shift in theatre, and tragedy itself has evolved in French theatre; still abundantly present in contemporary works, tragedy’s form and structure has altered. This essay will explore the traditional forms of a tragedy from its ancient roots, and consider how ‘tragedy of language’ is manifested in classical and contemporary French theatre. Jean Racine’s Phedre, is a widely accepted classical French tragedy, based on a subject from Greek mythology, in this play, we can see an objective tragedy, but with further consideration, we can identify that the tragedy is manifested in the language of the play. We will write a custom essay sample on Tragedy of Language in French Theatre or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With the development of avant-garde theatre in France, came Eugene Ionesco and later, Bernard-Marie Koltes. Ionesco and Koltes have both referred to their works as ‘tragedy of language’, and this essay will examine Ionesco’s Rhinoceros and Koltes’ Black Battles With Dogs to explore the ways in which language can manifest itself and how it can become the direct root of the disastrous events that form a tragic play. Language is the fundamental tool of any dramatist, and tragedy is a pillar of French theatre to this day, but what can so often be overlooked, is the integral role that language plays, not only in communicating the tragedy of a play, but often as the root cause of the tragic events themselves. The genre of tragedy is an ancient one, however, to effectively classify any theatre as a ‘tragedy of language’, first the term tragedy must be defined. Every work of tragedy involves ‘conflict’; â€Å" ‘Tragedy’ represents any play in which the conflicts are necessarily insoluble, whereas a ‘drama’ is any play in which the conflicts are solved. †1 This ‘conflict’ is almost always as a result of contact with ‘Otherness’; in Racine’s Phedre, it is the contact Phaedra makes with ‘the Other’ (Hippolytus) which ultimately leads to the conflict and fatality of the play. However in more and more examples of contemporary theatre, we can identify language as a base cause for much conflict; through a breakdown in communication, the use of language as a weapon and the communication of characters with ‘the Other’. ‘Otherness’ is a third, integral element of all tragedy. ‘The Other’ defines any element outside of the ego of a character; Phaedra represents ‘otherness’ to Hippolytus, Alboury represents ‘the Other’ to Horn and Cal, and the Rhinoceritis takes the form of ‘otherness’ to Berenger in Ionesco’s Rhinoceros. Any contact or communication between the tragic heroes and ‘otherness’ will lead to conflict, which in turn aids the fulfillment of the fatal destiny of the tragic heroes. Having defined the basic necessities of tragedy, we can see the multitude of ways that language can be the creator of tragedy. A breakdown of communication, the use of language as a weapon and communication with ‘the Other’ are all ways in which language can become the root cause of tragedy and there are a multitude of examples throughout the history of French theatre which draw upon this ‘tragedy of language’. As earlier set out, one of the key defining elements of a tragic work is â€Å"The Other†. In Racine’s play, communicating with ‘The Other’ is the cause of conflict, language becomes a weapon when dealing with ‘Otherness’’; in Phedre, ‘The Other’ is represented as love Phaedra’s sinful love is the primary source and leads to her interactions with Hippolytus and Theseus which are the main sources of conflict in the play. Phaedra confronts ‘The Other’ in Hippolytus when she communicates her love to him; as a result, her words act as weapons, they create conflict in the relationship between her and Hippolytus, and internal conflict for Hippolytus himself. Barthes comments; â€Å"Conflict is basic in Racine. It is never merely a conflict of love that sets two beings in opposition. The essential relation is one of authority, love serves only to reveal it. 2 In Phedre, the communication of love creates the conflict in the relationships between characters; Phaedra’s love creates conflict between her and Hippolytus, and between Hippolytus and Theseus, and further, Hippolytus’ love for Aricia has the potential to create conflict between himself and Theseus. In Black Battles, ‘The Other’ is represented much more literally; by Alboury, and by extension, the black community. As we have seen in Phedre, communication with ‘otherness’ always leads to conflict, and conflict is the driving force of any tragedy. A fine example of the conflict resulting from contact with ‘otherness’ occurs in Scene Four, where we are introduced to Horn and Alboury’s opposing world views â€Å"For Horn, a man is worth what he can achieve when alive; for Alboury, he takes his place in the natural cycle of the unborn, the living and the dead. 3 This opposition sets up the entire conflict that occurs in the play between Alboury and Horn; Alboury has come for his brother’s body and will not sway from this position where Horn, knowing the body cannot be found, refuses to give the body to Alboury and a conflict rages between the two characters on this point, until Horn finally reveals the truth, which spawns to conflict between Alboury and Cal which will untimately lead to Cal’s death. In Horn’s communication with ‘otherness’, the tragic conflict and eventual fatal end of Cal is created and fulfilled, demonstrating how Koltes drew upon a ‘tragedy of language’ to construct the tragedy of his play. The other encounter with ‘The Other’ that occurs in the play also ends in conflict and tragedy; Leonie’s interactions with Alboury; â€Å"Leonie is very different, though sharing something with Alboury. She is a ‘poor white’ flown out from France at Horn’s expense and for his entertainment As an Alsacienne, she has also learned to communicate in a second language (German) and her solution to Alboury speaking Woloff is to speak german with him. †4 Upon her first encounter with ‘The Other’ through Alboury, there does not appear to be a creation of conflict for Leonie, but as the play moves forward, what becomes evident is how ‘otherness’ has revealed to Leonie her oppression at the hands of Horn and thus creates an inner conflict and her infatuation with Alboury is born. Further as each subsequent encounter between Leonie and ‘otherness’ occurs, her inner conflict builds as she strays further from Horn and the conflict culminates in an outward conflict between Alboury and Leonie; Leonie delivers an elaborate declaration of love and devotion to Alboury and he brutally rejects her â€Å"LEONIE: Your village will be mine, your language will be mine, your earth will be my earth and I’ll follow you even into your dreams and beyond death, I swear, I’ll still be with you.. ALBOURY: Demal fale doomu xac bi! (He spits in Leonie’s face. )† 5 This translates as â€Å"I wouldn’t bother with you! † and this use of language is a direct cause of the tragic end of Leonie’s character; her communication with ‘otherness’ ultimately leads to her sacrifice of her face, â€Å"When Leonie, in scene sixteen, scarifies her cheeks, she is partly expressing the feelings of worthlessness imposed upon her by the men, but also a desire for escape into a different condition. 6 Communication with ‘The Other’ in Black Battles, whether it be between Horn and Alboury or Leonie and Alboury, is another manifestation of the ‘tragedy of language’, as we can clearly see that any communication between a character and ‘the other’ will lead to the creation of conflict. In Ionesco’s Rhinoceros, the same system occurs; the ‘rhinoceritis’ represents ‘The Other’, and it is the characters’ communication with this ‘otherness’ that creates the conflicts of the play, and leads to the inescapable fatality of the tragedy. Initially, all characters experience conflict as a result of their interactions with the Rhinoceroses; Jean and Berenger come to conflict in Act One; â€Å"JEAN [to Berenger]: What me? You dare to accuse me of talking nonsense? BERENGER [To Jean]: Yes, absolute, blithering nonsense! JEAN [to Berenger]: I’ve never talked nonsense in my life! BERENGER [to Jean, continuing]: and what’s more, a pedant who’s not certain of his facts because in the first place it’s the Asiatic rhinoceros with only one horn on its nose, and it’s the African with two The other characters leave the Housewife and crowd round Jean and Berenger who argue at the top of their voices. ]†7 This conflict comes as a result of the appearance of the Rhinoceroses and the character’s interactions with this ‘Other’. Further, more conflict arises as a result of ‘The Other’ infiltrating the characters’ lives in Act Two, Scene One, wherein Bota rd and Dudard argue over the existence of the Rhinoceros, and finally, the most poignant conflict occurs in Act Three; the internal conflict that afflicts Berenger, the only human being left; â€Å"BERENGER: I’m gone past changing. I want to, I really do, but I can’t, I just can’t! I can’t stand the sight of me. I’m too ashamed! [He turns his back on the mirror. ] I’m so ugly! People who try to hang on to their individuality always cine to a bad end! [He suddenly snaps out of it. ] Oh well, too bad! I’ll take on the whole of them! I’m the last man left, and I’m staying that way until the end. I’m not capitulating! †8 In Berenger, we see that his communication with ‘otherness’ results in an inner conflict which leads to his tragic destiny his isolation as the only human being left. The other characters of the play all meet tragic, ‘fatal’ ends’, however, their fate is a different ‘death’; they communicate with ‘The Other’ in their acceptance of the ‘rhinoceritis’ and in this acceptance, they metamorphose and their death is metaphorical; they lose their humanity, so their tragic destiny is fulfilled in this ‘death of humanity’. The ‘tragedy of language’ appears in this communication with ‘Otherness’ once again, as in doing so, the characters fulfill their tragic destinies. In all three plays, characters struggle to communicate with ‘the other’ and inevitably fail to communicate effectively, but it is not only communication with ‘otherness’ that creates the essential conflicts; lack of communication often produces the same results. Silence, or non-communication, presents a root problem in the plays. As Barthes notes, regarding Phedre; â€Å"We are dealing with a silence tormented by the notion of its own destruction. Phaedra is her silence; to break this silence is to die, but also to die can only mean having spoken. 9 The tragedy of Phaedra herself is manifest in language; through non-communication, Phaedra is suffering a slow and tormented death, she has not communicated her guilt so she is suffering, unable to find peace in death. When she finally does communicate her guilt to Theseus, she can finally die; â€Å"PHAEDRA: But first I wished to clear my victim’s name. I wished, revealing my remorse to you, to choose a slower road down to the dead. †10 Phaedra’s silence is her tormentor, in breaking it, she can die with some peace. Non-communication is also the creator of Hippolytus’ tragedy; his non-communication of Phaedra’s sin, is where his tragic end is born; â€Å"Hippolytus: Rightly indignant at so black a lie, I ought, my lord, to let the truth speak out, But I shall not resolve this mystery, Out of the deep respect that seals my lips. †11 Hippolytus’ refusal to speak of Phaedra’s guilt marks the beginning of his ultimate destruction. The non-communication, the silence of these two characters, Phaedra and Hippolytus, is where the tragedy of this play lies. We see further examples of ‘non-communication’ creating conflicts in Koltes’ Black Battles; In almost every moment of communication, we can see a profound ‘non-communication’, for every word that is said, there is vital information that is left unsaid. This breakdown in communication leads to and develops the conflicts of the tragedy. The initial example of this breakdown in communication is in Cal and Horn’s failure to reveal the whereabouts of the dead man’s body. Through this non-communication, the initial and prevalent conflict of the play is born, the conflict that will lead to Cal’s demise; the issue of the return of the dead man’s body. â€Å"Conflict leads to an almost total breakdown in communication in many of Koltes’ plays. Very little understanding between characters is shown. They often speak in soliloquies whilst interlocutors remain silent. They fail to respond. Koltes shows the inability of people to communicate. 12 Furthermore, there is a glaring display of non-communication between Leonie and Horn; Horn has proposed to Leonie and shipped her out to Africa, but she has not been prepared for what she is met with or what is expected of her. Her initial refusal to leave her room is invariably down to her uncertainty as to what is expected of her. In this breakdown of communication, the tragedy of Leonie’s fate is born and fulfilled; through Horn’s treatment of her, Leonie is pushed towards Albour y, but there is a fundamental breakdown in communication between Leonie and Alboury as well. Alboury consistently employs the Woloff language when communicating with Leonie, although he speaks French and understands her she in turn responds by speaking German to him. Although the characters have a shared language, they consciously choose ‘non-communication’ and this leads to the final conflict between the two characters and the tragic sacrifice and end of Leonie in the play; her scarification of her cheeks and her exile from both Africa and her relationship with Horn. Clare Finburgh comments; â€Å"Characters in the play solicit responses, but don’t get them. Words don’t enable characters to know and understand each other any better. Words reflect the tragic impossibility to access Others and to understand the self the more characters speak, the less they seem able of communicating. †13None of the characters share the same views or language and communication breaks down as they fail to communicate and understand one another. The essential non-communication in Black Battles creates every conflict of the play the conflicts that ultimately define the tragedy. In Rhinoceros, non-communication leads to a total breakdown of communication which creates the conflicts that are the tragedy of the play. Rhinoceros is a play of language, and more specifically, an excess of language; where the words themselves become autonomous and their very meaning is lost. Throughout the play there is a complete excess of dialogue; the same sentences are repeated over and over and characters often appear to have conversations with several other characters at once and the dialogue becomes both a soliloquy and a multi-character dialogue. The characters do not actually convey any meaning or make themselves understood, in much the same way that the characters drowned in language in Black Battles With Dogs. In the absence of meaning, the words themselves take absolute control and drive their unfortunate victim withersoever their blind and dangerous energies may choose to direct. †14 We see an excellent example of the autonomy of language in Act One, wherein several characters Jean, Berenger, Daisy, The Old Gentleman, The Logician, The Grocer, The Waitress etc. communicate simultaneously, neither requiring nor achieving a response from any character but themselves; â€Å"WAITRESS: Oh, poor little thing! PROPRIETOR [Pointing, for the Waitress’s benefit, to the debris]: Over there, over there! OLD GENTLEMAN [To the Grocer]: Well, what do you think of that? BERENGER [To the Housewife]: You mustn’t cry like that, it’s too heartbreaking! DAISY [To Berenger]: Were you there, Mr Berenger? Did you see it? BERENGER [to Daisy]: Good morning Miss Daisy, you must excuse me, I haven’t had a chance to shave PROPRIETOR: Poor little thing! †15 Here we see that although the characters are fluent in their use of language, no one truly hears nor understands anyone else, nor do they require responses for their own language to continue; Richard N. Coe comments; â€Å" This process [exhaustion of language’s meaning] reaches its logical conclusion in the unforgettable ‘dialogues-in-counterpoint’ of Rhinoceros, where not only one, but several conversations are carried on simultaneously in the same vein, each character absorbed by his own obsessions, picking up the half-heard cues, not of his own, but of someone else’s interlocutor. †16 Such an excess of language makes it impossible for any of the characters to make themselves understood, and this is what leads to the conflict of the play; the ‘Rhinoceritis’ that afflicts each character one by one. As we have seen with both Phedre and Black Battles with Dogs, the ‘tragedy of language’ manifests itself in the essential ‘non-communication’ of the play. The excess and autonomy of language in Ionesco’s work results in ‘meaningless language’, and the inability of any character to hear or be heard; to understand or be understood, ultimately leads to the demise of humanity; the true tragedy of the play. But it is not just non-communication that creates a ‘tragedy of language’, any form of communication can create the conflicts that lead to such a tragedy. The profoundest of Racine’s tragedies is also the most formal; for the tragic stake here is less the meaning of language than its manifestation, less Phaedra’s love than her avowal. Or more exactly; to name evil is to exhaust it entirely. †17 Roland Barthes makes this statement about Phedre, and throughout the play we can see that the tragedy is in the man ifestation of language, rather than its meaning. Without the vocalization of the secrets and sins which are hidden by characters in the play, there need not be any conflict or violence, and consequently, no tragedy. In speaking the secret and the guilt, the tragic characters force others to respond and act and it is in these actions that the tragedy is fulfilled, in speaking the sin, the tragedy is manifest, â€Å"Speech is terrible. First, because it is an act, the word is very powerful. Mostly, however, it is because it is irreversible: no speech can be taken back. By avoiding speech, one avoids action. †18 Phedre draws on the ‘tragedy of language’ by the process that language leads to conflict, which leads to violence and death, all the key elements of a work of tragedy. PHAEDRA: Dying I could have kept my name unstained, and my dark passion from the light of day. †19 Although already guilty of her sin, Phaedra’s guilt is only created if the sin is spoken. If it remains unsaid her guilt is not external, so there need be no external conflict. However, not speaking has created inner conflict for Phaedra which has caused her slow death. Only she will die if the s ecret is unspoken, but through language, she causes the death of Hippolytus as well as her own. The tragic characters of Phedre Hippolytus, Theseus and Phaedra herself only meet their tragic ends through the manifestation of language in the play; only through the utterance of Pheadra’s love does the tragedy of the play unfold, as in this utterance, language takes the form of a weapon. In Phedre, language takes the form of a weapon in conjunction with communication with ‘otherness’’; Theseus communicates with the ultimate ‘Other being’ when he asks Poseidon to exact revenge upon Hippolytus; â€Å"THESEUS: But still the villain will not now escape. Immortal hands are with his downfall charged. This Neptune owes me, you will be avenged. †20 However, Theseus becomes a victim of his own words; he speaks too soon and cannot unsay what he has said. Oenone’s ruse is a further example of the conflict that language creates; Oenone seeks, not to reverse Phaedra’s statement, but to manipulate the language, she seeks to transfer Phaedra’s sinful confession from Phaedra to Hippolytus, thereby turning the confession into a weapon; â€Å"OENONE: Dare then to accuse him first, Of the offense he soon may charge you with All I need is your silence to succeed. †21 Koltes’ use of language in his play is another fine example of language becoming a weapon and subsequently, the language of the play is what creates and drives the conflict which defines Black Battles as a tragedy. Maria Delgado notes; â€Å"French is a language rendered anew in his plays Words are weapons in the plays; both armour and the Achilles’ Heel. They bargain, mash, cajole and mislead. 22 In Black Battles we can detect almost constant use of language by the characters in this way; every character but Alboury uses their language as both a shield and a weapon; Cal is desperate to rid himself of his crime and hides behind his words, weaving intricate narratives which in the end, only drive him towards his fatal end, whereas Horn uses his language to manipulate and negotiate with all characters he comes into contact with, using long monologues and elaborate speeches both to hide behind and attack with, and this can be seen most prolifically in his dealings with Alboury. In Scene Thirteen, Horn delivers a large number of long monologues, all in the hope of distracting Alboury from his task, delivering vast quantities of meaningless language in the hope of defending himself and Cal from their crimes. Furthermore Koltes’ play makes comment on the colonial rule in Africa; French is a language imposed on the African people through colonial rule. Alboury speaks in French through most of the play and always when addressing Horn, and this is a demonstration of how language has been used as a weapon in a much grander sense; language, and the imposition of a new language was used to dominate and repress the blacks, both in the play and in the reality of the time. As mentioned, Alboury does not employ his language as a weapon, and this is certainly a result of French being a second language to him â€Å"Few characters in Koltes’ plays are as direct as Alboury; his first words are simply who he is and what he has come to do. He does not waver from this position throughout the play. †23 Here, the tragedy of language is in both Cal and Horn’s employment of their language as a weapon, a weapon which only drives them towards the tragic end of the piece and furthermore, Koltes draws on a ‘tragedy of language’ in his illumination of the tragic use of language in reality; as Clare Finburgh states; â€Å"Colonialised people are forced to speak a non-native language eg. French. Language is used by the coloniser to dominate, not communicate. 24 Language is used to repress in a political sense, and this, resulting in the domination of race and an inevitable conflict, is tragic in itself. In Ionesco’s work, the language has an equally violent streak, however mankind itself is victimised by an autonomous language; no character is responsible for exacting violence against another, it is the language itself that creates and develops the conflict; â€Å"The victimisation of man by lang uage results in the death of language. The death of language has plunged man dizzying backwards, not merely into everlasting silence, but into primeval chaos, where all things are confounded in obscurity. †25 The language is responsible for the characters’ metamorphosis, the death of language through it’s lack of meaning results in the decay and demise of mankind; the language takes on a life of its own and turns on the characters, Richard N. Coe recognises this; â€Å"The final transformation of Dudard into an armour-plated perissodactyl is an illustration of mankind victimised by language. 26 The entirety of Act Three is an elaborate demonstration of the victimisation of man by language; we are presented with the case of Dudard, and we follow him from an early conviction to remain a man, to his eventual demise in his metamorphosis and it is language that mobilizes and enables this demise; early in Act Three he states an intention to remain human, â€Å"DUDARD: We’ll all stay as we are, donâ €™t worry. So why get upset over a few cases of Rhinoceritis? Perhaps it’s just another disease. 27 As the scene progresses, however, Dudard’s language begins to turn upon him; â€Å"DUDARD [reflectively]: I wonder if we oughtn’t to give it a try? †28 and eventually, his language wins and he meets his tragic fate; â€Å"DUDARD: I shall keep my mind clear. [He starts to move around the stage in circles. ] As clear as it ever was. But if you’re going to criticize, it’s better to do so from the inside. I’m not going to abandon them. I won’t abandon them. [DUDARD opens the door and runs off. †29 Conflict is an essential ingredient for any tragic work, and ‘tragedy of language’ is drawn upon masterfully by Ionesco in his systematic victimisation of his characters through autonomous language; mankind is destined to die and it’s demise is orchestrated by a self-determining language. Language and communication is what defines human beings from animals, and its power is overwhelming. French theatre draws deeply upon ‘a tragedy of language’; the defining elements of a tragic work conflict, fatality and ‘otherness’ are all commonly both created and fulfilled through and by language itself. The instances of non-communication, breakdown of language and language becoming a weapon in conflict are rife in both classical and contemporary French theatre. We have seen, in Phedre, how silence and non-communication can create and determine the tragedy of a play, in Black Battles with Dogs we have seen how language can become a weapon and a tool used in dealing with ‘otherness’ and in Rhinoceros we have seen how language itself can create conflict, and by the death of language, how characters can meet their tragic, pre-destined deaths. A tragedy of language’ can appear in many forms, and in French theatre, we see a wide manifestation of language’s tragic potential, in a number of incarnations from a tragedy of silence to tragedy through autonomous language but, as this essay has discovered, ‘tragedy of language’ is deeply imbedded within both classical and contemporary French theatre.